The Role and Vision of the Korean Church in Practicing Carbon Neutrality in the Era of Climate Crisis
Shin-young Kim, In-mee Lee, Mi-ho You
(Christian Environmental Education Center Salim, https://www.eco-christ.com)
This article is part of a paper titled "A Study on the Role, Potential, and Outlook of the Korean Church in Practicing Carbon Neutrality in the Era of Climate Crisis," co-authored by Kim Shin-young, Lee In-mi, and Yoo Mi-ho of the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim, commissioned by the United Christian Churches of Korea. Due to space limitations, we have omitted the research purpose and significance section of the introduction, the chapter on overseas churches, and the section on "Christian values as 'salt' towards the era of climate crisis," which includes "peace, justice, hope, love, coexistence, and creation" (For the full text, please contact: ecochrist@hanmail.net).
- The Korean Church's Interest in Environmental Issues
It is not easy to pinpoint when Korean theologians and various churches began to consistently express theological and faith-based interest in ecological and environmental issues with one voice towards our society. However, as our society rapidly urbanized and industrialized through the 1970s and into the 1980s when fatal environmental pollution issues surfaced in many places, and around the time when nuclear power plant accidents (Three Mile Island in the US in 1979, Chernobyl in Ukraine in 1986) that caused global shock occurred, a phenomenon of small and large interests in the ecological environment sprouting among some churches and believers can be observed. However, the intensity and scale of that interest progressed somewhat separately for each denomination, church, seminary, or individual Christian, so it was not to the extent that a consistent historical collective flow could be captured. That's not to say that there was absolutely no atmosphere of theological and ecclesiastical interest within the Korean church. It can be said that interest in the ecological environment has never 'represented' the entire Korean church with a fully united force. In this article, we will examine the Korean church's interest in the ecological environment from the 1970s to the present, categorizing it into theological interest and ecclesiastical interest, and then look for practical measures for the church.
1.1 Theological Interest
Theological discussions exploring ecological and environmental issues in relation to the church's responsibility first began in Western society. Lynn White's 1967 paper "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis" is often considered the starting point. In this paper, White criticized Western Christianity as "the most anthropocentric religion in the world," citing the creation belief that "although man's body is made of clay, man is not part of nature but is made in God's image." [1] The initial reaction of contemporary theologians to this paper was unfavorable.[2] The fact that the author was a historian, in addition to the content of the paper, seems to have contributed to the spread of unfavorable reactions among theologians. However, as time passed, the number of theologians agreeing with White's main thesis gradually increased. Additionally, if it is acknowledged as a historical fact that Christianity significantly contributed to humanity's ecological crisis, a positive idea was also derived that overcoming the future ecological crisis would be possible if Christianity completely ceased to be a cause.
In Korea, Professor Suh Nam-dong of Yonsei University opened the curtain on eco-theology, which was still unfamiliar domestically, by publishing two consecutive papers on the theme of 'ecology & theology' in the early 1970s. Suh published "An Introduction to Ecological Theology" in 1970 and "Towards Ecological Ethics" in 1972. In "An Introduction to Ecological Theology," he wrote that technological civilization needs radical self-transformation to avoid ecological crisis, citing the 1st-century figure Apostle Paul and the 20th-century figure Arthur C. Clarke side by side.[3] In his second paper, "Towards Ecological Ethics," he summarized and introduced White's 1967 paper while arguing that Christian ethics should move towards "Species Consciousness" as ecological ethics rather than individual conscience.[4] However, for nearly twenty years after that, there were hardly any who intensively developed eco-theological discussions.
Then, in the early 1990s, as eco-theological discussions became much more active worldwide, eco-theological discussions also increased significantly within our country. The state of the global eco-theological community at that time was such that one researcher called it "the Warring States period of eco-theology,"[5] and we can self-evaluate that our country was no less so. Therefore, even just classifying the eco-theological discourses discussed at this time is a challenging task. Some mainly divide foreign theologians into 'pantheism, post-pantheism, theocentric-stewardship types,'[6] and some simply classify domestic theologians by applying familiar concepts such as 'conservative, liberal, moderate.'[7] While there is a view that all eco-theology is ultimately connected to the Christian doctrine of creation,[8] there are also those who present as many as twelve classification tables, dividing from extremely anthropocentric theology that rejects eco-theology itself to syncretic-quasi-religious theology.[9] In any case, it can be said that from the 1990s, various eco-theological discourses produced overseas were passionately imported into Korea. Also, by the late 1990s, as discussions attempting dialogue between ecological theology and traditional Eastern thought (for example, Confucian thought) appeared, starting with Lee Jung-bae, it also spawned the classification of 'inter-religious dialogue' in the future.[10]
It is noteworthy that the term 'Theology of Life' (or Reformed Life Theology) frequently appears among eco-theological discussions entering the 2000s. Life theology can be said to be a theological research work that deeply explores and reflects on the essence of life, and it is undoubtedly true that it implies many points of contact with eco-theology. However, as the advent of the climate crisis era diversifies the awareness of issues such as science, politics, economy, society, and culture implied by climate change, and as the approach to these becomes more complex, it can be seen that the differences between life theology and eco-theology are gradually increasing rather than the commonalities they previously had. Meanwhile, there are also theological papers that experimentally implement a unique ecological perspective, such as research papers exploring whether 'animal theology' is possible in Korea.[11]
1.2 Ecclesiastical Interest
It is difficult to say that the Korean church's interest and activities related to ecological and environmental issues have flowed in exact alignment with the overall trends of Christian churches worldwide. However, it is also not the case that they have flowed entirely separately. There has been a tendency to keep pace to some extent. In this sense, we will first briefly overview the ecclesiastical interests of Christian churches around the world. Christian churches worldwide contemplated the relationship between technology and the environment at the 1910 Edinburgh World Missionary Conference (theme: 'The Evangelization of the World in This Generation'). At the 1928 Jerusalem International Missionary Council, they reached the point of confessing Christ as "the Lord of all life" not only in the spiritual realm but across all aspects of human life, and established the goal of mission as "the preliminary realization of God's kingdom on this earth."[12]
People often tend to assume that traditional evangelical churches had little interest or passion for social engagement, in other words, the church's social responsibility. Of course, according to the careful observation of evangelical theologian John R. W. Stott, evangelical churches have long, especially during the Cold War era, given the impression of focusing more on evangelism than social engagement. However, a close look at historical facts reveals that it is not so simple to evaluate in such a linear fashion. At the 1974 Lausanne Congress, sharing the concept of "integral mission," evangelical churches sympathized with the church's responsibility for various social issues, including environmental problems, and explored how churches should respond to these issues in faith, that is, the significance and methods of social engagement. In line with this, evangelical churches formed the <Micah Network> in 1999, and in 2009, set the theme of the <Micah Network> meeting as "Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate Change."[13] However, it is difficult to confirm to what extent domestic evangelical churches actually responded to and participated in such international trends during the same period, due to insufficient records.
Meanwhile, ecumenical churches participating in the church unity movement and the <World Council of Churches (WCC, Korean organization NCCK)> declared at the 5th General Assembly held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1975 that they felt a sense of concern about the ecological crisis and that this should be made a core task of the church and theology. In 1982, a Christian institution and non-governmental organization (NGO) civil society group called the <Korea Pollution Problems Research Institute> began its activities in Korea, and this organization continues to operate under the name <Christian Environmental Movement Solidarity (CEMS)> to this day. Ecumenical churches sharing a sense of concern about the ecological crisis once again expressed their interest and concern for the ecological environment created by God at the 6th General Assembly in Vancouver, Canada (1983), and at the 1990 Seoul Conference in South Korea, they continued to reflect on the theological theme of "Justice, Peace, Integrity of Creation (JPIC)". Around this time, various denominations in Korea began to develop environmental movements autonomously in diverse ways. Some denominations conducted 'environmental correspondence courses', while others developed 'Life Path Narrow Gate Movements'.[14] Not only denominational organizations but also individual churches began to establish environment-related departments. However, it can be said that until then, the interest and movement of ecumenical churches and denominations regarding the ecological environment tended to be understood and practiced as part of minjung theology, minjung churches, and democratization (minjung) movements.[15]
By the late 1990s, environmental movements in domestic churches became clearly more active, regardless of conservative or progressive stances on social and political issues. Although it was still rare for environmental movements to demonstrate organizational power and continuity across domestic denominations and churches,[16] as the number of denominations and churches with environmental committees (or green committees) gradually increased, the possibility of so-called 'grassroots environmental movements' also began to strengthen.
Then, on December 7, 2007, a large-scale oil spill occurred off the coast of Taean Peninsula on the west coast. It was a major accident caused by overlapping judgment errors of the Hebei Spirit, Samsung Heavy Industries, and Hyundai Oilbank. As a result of this accident, the ecosystem of the sea off the Taean Peninsula was immediately polluted, and in January 2008, a tragedy followed with a resident of the Taean Peninsula committing self-immolation. As soon as this accident was reported through the media, many churches in Korea initially decided to volunteer for oil removal autonomously and quickly began to visit the accident site. Numerous churches swiftly organized and carried out volunteer work. Individual churches quickly recruited volunteers through their own networks and rapidly transported them to the accident site. Soon after, the <Korean Church Service Group for Saving the West Coast (KCSG)> was launched, taking on the role of a control tower to efficiently organize and distribute volunteer manpower. While there were some Christians who collected consolation money at the individual church level to deliver to the residents of the Taean area or arrived at the Taean Peninsula by private car as families, it is a well-known fact that it was the <KCSG> that played the role of coordinator, enabling various relief supplies and Christian volunteers of all ages and genders to work together efficiently. It is also particularly noteworthy that evangelical churches, which had not seemed to have much interest in the ecological environment until then, took the lead in actively participating in volunteer work for the restoration of the ecological environment of the Taean Peninsula.[17] As different churches literally worked as one body under banners saying "Cheer up, the Korean Church is with you" all over the Taean Peninsula, it can be said that they showed that Korean churches, which had been divided into evangelical and ecumenical, could cooperate organizationally on ecological and environmental issues. This series of phenomena is comparable to the incident in 1969 when, following the Santa Barbara oil spill in California, USA, citizens' interest and awareness of the ecological environment noticeably surged, and those citizens joined forces to finally bring about the establishment of 'Earth Day'
In March 2011, another major environmental pollution incident occurred. The Fukushima nuclear power plant accident happened in neighboring Japan. It was a large-scale accident rated as level 7 (the worst) on the nuclear event scale. Immediately after the accident, Korean churches quickly organized the <Japan Disaster Joint Countermeasure Council> and <Korean Church Hope Volunteer Corps> to help Japan, and these organizations continued their activities for about a year thereafter.[18] Even after that, quite a few people continued to help Japan as individual missionaries or individual churches. This accident raised awareness among individual Christians about the potential for catastrophic environmental damage and life-threatening consequences that nuclear power plant accidents can cause, leading to the formation of the <Korean Christian Solidarity for a Nuclear-Free World> group.
Also, although not widely known to the public, there have been Christians who have been steadily engaging in volunteer work for years under the name of 'green mission', planting trees in desert areas such as China and Mongolia to address air pollution caused by yellow dust flying into our country.[19] Tree planting activities in Mongolia, in collaboration with not only church organizations (e.g., <Mongolia Evangelical Alliance>) but also business organizations, can be said to set an example of so-called "holistic mission".[20]
Then, as social interest in the climate crisis is urgently and radically increasing these days, to what extent are Korean churches showing interest in and expressing concern about the ecological environment and climate crisis? First, it is noteworthy that churches such as Geomdan Good Church, Gongdeok Church, Bridge-Building Church, Bongwon Church, and Seoul First Church have started operating their own 'zero waste shops' that sell only contents without plastic packaging containers. If these churches' zero waste shop cases spread nationwide and more churches start operating zero waste shops, it is anticipated that a huge wave of eco-friendly consumer movement can be achieved. Also, in the past 1-2 years, through the 'Carbon Neutral Climate Church' workshop organized by the <Christian Environmental Education Center Salim>, an increasing number of churches are reflecting on their identity as 'light and salt' in this dark era of climate crisis and considering practical and solidarity activities within their local communities. This can be seen as one of the major trends worth noting.
Furthermore, churches participating in the <Korea Evangelical Fellowship (KEF)> drew attention from both inside and outside the church circles by showing efforts to share faith-based interests in considering nature as a partner of humans, while reflecting on "our responsibilities towards family, society, and nature" through the 'Monthly Breakfast Prayer Meeting and Theme Presentation' in May 2014. The <Christian Ethics Movement of Korea> has been expanding its 'Voluntary Inconvenience Movement' content since 2011 to include climate crisis topics from 2021, reorganizing its stance on climate crisis environmental movement. The <Korea Holy City Environmental Movement Headquarters> has been actively working for over 13 years since its inception with the goal of "a happier world with a cleaner environment". In addition, organizations such as <The Beautiful World God Created Institute> and <Christian Environmental Education Center Salim> are putting all their efforts into developing environmental and ecological education for churches and individual Christians.
Therefore, it can now be said that an atmosphere has been created where nationwide united activities of Korean churches can be expected regarding responses to ecological environmental issues such as the climate crisis, regardless of denomination and region. In fact, churches declaring themselves as green churches have increased across the country, and more churches are choosing carbon fasting as a practical measure to keep the global temperature rise at 1.5 degrees.[21] In March 2021, <Christian Emergency Action on Climate Crisis>, involving about 60 churches and Christian organizations and 80 individual Christians, began its activities,[22] and in February 2022, <Christian Alliance for Climate Crisis>, a lay-centered activity organization, was newly launched.[23] In June 2022, at the 6th Life Theology Forum, a 'Carbon Neutral Climate Church Declaration' was announced in the name of the Korean Church. Indeed, the current climate crisis emergency can be said to be a topic that calls for a common sense of responsibility across the Korean church. It can be evaluated that a consensus has been formed within the Korean church that Christian and prophetic voices should be raised in accordance with God's will to save and care for life, in opposition to the phenomenon of 'unjust climate change' that threatens and constricts life.
1.3 Limitations and Significance
What limitations have there been in the theological and ecclesiastical interests of Korean Christianity from the 1970s to the present day? First, we can identify two limitations in theological interest. The first is that despite the diverse development of ecological theology in theological discussions, both in the past and present, there have been very few cases where it has been recognized or applied at the individual church level. When theological discussions that are only active in academia become disconnected from the church public, their meaning and significance can easily diminish. Secondly, it can also be pointed out as a limitation that there were cases of almost directly importing ecological theology discourses from overseas. While climate change and carbon neutrality are universal issues globally, it seems that we are at a point where we need independent, subjective, and autonomous academic activities that look at these problems from our unique perspective and delve into solutions.
Next, I would like to point out one limitation that has been observed in the church's interest in environmental issues in our society so far. As most church officials recognize, the problem of Korean churches being divided for decades seems to have led to a somewhat dispersed pattern of church interest. To put it bluntly, our reality is that churches have existed in factions for decades without narrowing the differences in thoughts and positions on the <WCC>, looking at churches in the opposing camp with distrustful eyes. Moreover, ecumenical churches gathering around the <NCCK>, the Korean organization of the <WCC>, mainly stood on the side of voicing opposition and sharpening their stance against the government of the time when studying environmental degradation and pollution issues, or when advocating anti-war and anti-nuclear positions. Although such a resistant attitude was sometimes meaningful, it gave the impression of being so-called 'activist', resulting in not easily gaining the support of evangelical churches. Not only in our country, but historically, except for the totalitarian green movement led by the Nazi Party in Germany in the early 20th century,[24] green movements (environmental movements) that occurred in various countries generally had the color of 'anti-government' movements. There were also cases where anti-government positions and resistant attitudes were naturally taken while critically examining government policies pursuing development and progress for economic growth.
However, we can no longer overcome the global climate crisis with just such a resistant attitude. We have reached a point where a cooperative attitude is needed as much as a resistant stance. Now, there are far more cases where environmental movements need to actively cooperate with the government. It is crucial to look into the benefits provided by local governments when installing solar panels, and it is beneficial to know the long-term and short-term policies and implementation plans of local governments regarding landfill or recycling waste issues. Churches and Christian organizations are no exception to this trend. They need to seek ways to unite and cooperate centered on the local community (village) where the church is located. It is necessary to consider practical environmental policies that can be utilized through environmental departments established in each country's administration, and because it is truly a 'climate emergency' era full of crisis where we need to conduct environmental movements that can have practical effects by cooperating globally and taking unified action for climate change. As Anthony Giddens, a British sociologist, emphasized, climate crisis environmental movements should not be conducted at the level of anti-government movements.[25] Jared Diamond even argues that today's environmentalists should actively cooperate with large corporations that are often thought to only pursue profits.[26]
Lastly, there is a need to meaningfully remember the historical significance of Korean Christianity's theological and ecclesiastical interest in the ecological environment, which was not entirely barren. Of course, while clearly discerning the fact that each church had different focal points and concentrations of interest, we should not forget that we can express gratitude (appreciate) and celebration for the fact that we can freely pursue different directions in this way. For example, while ecumenical churches tended to participate in environmental movements at the level of Christian citizen activities, evangelical churches showed participation in environmental movements from the perspective of God's mission. If our churches were not different from each other and were uniformly the same, they might have unexpectedly caused bottlenecks, and everyone might have jumped in and engaged in unnecessary competition. Therefore, if we look at the different characteristics of our churches, express gratitude and congratulations, and 'share' environmental movements according to different characteristics in the future, it will be a cooperative activity that characterizes our era. When we know that cooperation doesn't mean uniformly practicing the same actions, and when we learn from the past where we put factional logic first, we can open the future more healthily and cooperatively.
As we empirically know, when different individuals gather, each person's thoughts and opinions are bound to differ. When different churches and different denominations gather, different thoughts and opinions are bound to appear, so minor differences and resulting conflicts inevitably arise. Moreover, if the goals are different in one issue, it takes a long time for cooperative activities to emerge because dialogue must start from activities to adjust different goals to be close to each other. However, the ultimate goal of 'carbon neutrality to overcome the climate crisis' is an almost absolute topic that churches cannot set different goals for. All churches in the world can share this one goal simply because they exist on this planet. Because we can set 'carbon neutrality' as a common goal and ultimate goal together, our churches can start meaningful joint actions together. This is a very hopeful sign.
2 The Church and Carbon Neutrality: Its Necessity and Justification
2.1 Necessity
As the climate crisis becomes a reality, all sectors of society are beginning to be directly exposed to the effects of climate change. Governments of various countries are preparing to usher in a new era by establishing mid- to long-term plans for introducing carbon taxes and reducing carbon emissions. This trend has also influenced the religious community, leading to increased interest in responding and adapting to the climate crisis. Just as the government is moving away from having specific departments handle climate and environmental issues to gradually treating the climate crisis as a major issue across all departments, religions are also increasingly recognizing the importance of the climate crisis issue.
Environmental movements and other social movements have shown very different patterns of participation depending on the theological orientation of the church. However, as it becomes increasingly clear that climate change goes beyond the awareness addressed in the existing environmental movement and is now directly linked to the survival of our entire society, the entire planet, and future generations, there is a growing atmosphere of agreement on the need for churches to discuss the climate crisis.
The fact that climate change occurs due to an increase in carbon concentration in the atmosphere has now become common knowledge that everyone knows. However, there is little understanding of who emits carbon, how much, why, and how. As a result, there is only a vague understanding of what efforts should be made and how to reduce carbon emissions. Consequently, while awareness of climate change is very high, ironically, interest in climate change-related policies and the roles of central and local governments remains low. The situation in churches is not much different. While there is an increasing interest in the environment as climate change is frequently mentioned in broadcasts and media, and new forms of ministry such as green churches and ecological ministry gain attention, cases of expanding the base of faith-based practices based on a comprehensive understanding of climate change are still rare. This is because the attention and voices of church leaders and the religious community have been dispersed among various issues in our society, making it difficult to unite on the climate crisis, and climate change has still been viewed and ignored as just a branch of the environmental movement. On the other hand, while churches were somewhat indifferent to climate change, civil society's interest and movements regarding climate change have been very diverse, and social discussions have been activated.
While climate change was previously mentioned in connection with natural disasters such as global warming, sea level rise, and increased extreme weather events due to increased carbon concentration in the atmosphere, it is now expressed in terms such as climate crisis, climate catastrophe, and climate apocalypse, showing that climate change has become a survival issue that can no longer be ignored. It can be positively evaluated that many churches are showing interest in the climate crisis issue and attempting new changes in the church, but considering the reality of the climate crisis, more specific and planned changes are needed. For example, the <NCCK> has published 'With Life and Green Hope - Ecological Church Manual for Carbon Neutrality 2050 of the Korean Church (2022)'. This resource book provides motivation for local churches to fully sympathize and establish subsequent action plans in that it presents various information and practical measures centered on worship, education, and mission.
It is not easy to change the ways that individuals, communities, and society have adhered to so far. The ecological transition of the church is not possible simply because a specific manual is presented. Also, while there is sympathy for the need for ecological transition, the methods and pace of change desired by the public vary. And because there are numerous stakeholders with complex interests intertwined in the climate crisis and ecological transition, it is not easy to establish a foundation for smooth communication. For example, while there may be agreement on the church saving electricity and installing solar panels, there may be conflicts of opinion when expressing opposition to nuclear power. These realities make it difficult for individual churches to deeply understand the climate crisis and establish mid- to long-term plans. However, this problem is not just a church issue but a problem for our society as a whole, and it wastes the limited time we have been given to respond to the climate crisis.
What's important is strategy. Actions that proceed like campaigns without specific strategies may not only lack sustainability but also may not yield results commensurate with the effort. If the church's response to the climate crisis proceeds without specific and professional strategies, it will remain merely an internal church event, and its effect and contribution to society and the ecosystem will inevitably be minimal.
The main purpose of this paper is not to request churches to take an interest in the climate crisis and participate in active actions. If we are at a stage where we need to expend energy persuading churches why they should be interested in the climate crisis and act responsibly to prevent it, it can be said that the level of awareness about the climate crisis is already very low. Also, this paper will not focus on the need for faith-based decisions and Christian values to prevent the climate crisis. Such discussions have been ongoing for decades.
2.2 Necessity or Strategy
Now is the time to talk about specific strategies. We should not be asking why the church needs to be interested and participate in the climate crisis issue, but rather discuss with whom, what, how, and when the church should act to respond to the climate crisis. When there was a lack of social discussion about the climate crisis, it was very difficult for the church to have these discussions. However, the situation is rapidly changing as the government declares carbon neutrality by 2050, 226 basic local governments proclaim a 'climate crisis emergency declaration', and 80 local governments across the country launch a 'Carbon Neutral Local Government Action Alliance'. Churches and Christians can now work together more effectively with the government and civil society as members of society. Now the church should ask this question: How can the church contribute to actual carbon reduction by cooperating with the government, local authorities, and civil society in this new social and policy environment? Mi-ho Yoo, director of the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim, argues that churches thinking about carbon neutrality need to do work befitting this, beyond just acknowledging it, and shows that churches should follow at least the following three steps:[27]
First, regardless of one's position in the church or the number of people in the gathering, decide on and declare a 'Carbon Zero Green Church'.[28] A carbon zero green church is not far away, nor is it selected by a specific someone. As the number of church members who realize God as the Creator increases, it will naturally be built up as a green church that reveals the light of creation within the community. In this sense, all churches are potential green churches, and self-declaration helps to reveal this. Anyone can create a gathering, bring together those who agree with the vision, and make a 'Carbon Zero Green Church' declaration. It is important to meet with various people, including key leaders of the church and society, to create broad consensus, and if we continue to communicate while listening to God's voice in the groaning of creation, they too will gladly walk together.
The second step is to calculate the church's carbon emissions and analyze their sources. Beyond simply checking the building energy such as electricity and gas, transportation, water, food, paper usage, and waste emissions, specific reduction targets should be set and implementation strategies established. This helps confirm one's responsibility for the current climate crisis and helps repent and take responsible action for the lifestyle that has burdened the earth so far. Standing on the scale that measures one's own carbon emissions means making efforts to specifically analyze how much emissions the church can reduce, what the cost will be, and how long it will take. Furthermore, it means constantly striving towards the goal point by examining where to focus resources and efforts for meaningful results, what measures to use to measure progress towards the goal, and how to ensure smooth progress.
The third step is to specifically choose and act on what the church should do to reduce or stop carbon emissions. Systematic monitoring work is essential for this. This allows for evaluating the achievements made later, reviewing the shortcomings, and leading the entire process to better practice. What's important in this process is gaining the support of the entire church. It's possible to share the effects of the practice to encourage participation and lead to continuous practice, but in this process, we need to look out for and consider those who may be marginalized or struggling.
These three steps provide a big picture for the church to establish realistic strategies that fit the church's circumstances and locality. First, declaring a carbon zero green church and gathering people to participate in this work regardless of the number can be found in the overseas examples mentioned earlier. The PCUSA suggests forming an environmental team in the church with at least two people. The next two steps mention carbon emission calculation and monitoring, which are the most important issues related to the concretization of the strategy. If the church presents accurate data measured scientifically along with faith-based language such as creation faith, green faith, and ecological spirituality, it will not only be able to evaluate how the church's large and small practices affect the local community and the entire planet, but also provide direction for future strategy development.
3. Practical Measures for Churches to Achieve Carbon Neutrality
Carbon neutrality (net zero) is a term that encapsulates humanity's urgent and pressing demand to reduce carbon emissions to '0'. Strictly speaking, carbon neutrality is not a Christian term, nor is it a missionary term. However, churches must now calmly comprehend the concept of carbon neutrality, appropriately understand its meaning, and furthermore, boldly put carbon neutrality activities into practice. To summarize the reasons why churches should comprehend, understand, and practice carbon neutrality, we can mention two points. First, the church is not completely separate from society, but rather a gathering of people who have decided to fulfill the function of spreading the gospel (mission) by communicating with society. The role of 'light and salt' that the church, as a gathering of disciples following Jesus Christ, has taken on has no practical or substantial meaning apart from society. Second, although it might be said that the church community is not the main culprit of carbon emissions, it is a gathering of people who must take responsibility for having emitted carbon as a tangible organizational structure that uses the land of this world, uses the atmosphere of this world, and establishes and operates its meeting places within the scope of this world's natural environment. The meeting places (church buildings) used by our churches are established on this planet Earth, on the lands of each country. Therefore, the statement that the church must now take responsibility for carbon emissions and engage in carbon neutrality simply means that our churches cannot and should not be outsiders or bystanders in the task of carbon neutrality. In this chapter, we will propose eight specific practical measures for churches to achieve carbon neutrality.
3.1 Energy Production and Consumption
◦ The core of carbon neutrality lies in energy production and consumption. Currently, South Korea's energy production heavily depends on fossil fuels and nuclear power (In 2017, coal-fired power generation accounted for 43.1% of total power generation, while nuclear power accounted for 26.8%, meaning these two power sources supplied 70% of the total power). Especially since fossil fuels cause high carbon emissions, we need to gradually increase the proportion of renewable energy in our fossil fuel-based energy supply.[29]
◦ Our government also prioritizes energy transition as the primary task for carbon neutrality. Then, what practical measures can churches take regarding energy? So far, church activities have mainly focused on power-saving campaigns. For example, they have been at the level of minimizing standby power by unplugging unused electronic devices and using power strips, turning off unused lights, and participating in energy day events.
◦ Light is the first energy given by God. In Genesis, God creates light. The role of light is not specifically described in the creation story. However, from today's scientific common sense, it's very interesting from an energy perspective that God created light first. Almost all life on Earth is directly or indirectly connected to the energy coming from the sun. The same goes for the flow of atmosphere and ocean currents. However, in the high-energy consumption era, humans use more diverse energy sources. Among these, renewable energies such as solar, wind, and bioenergy, excluding oil, gas, and nuclear power, are directly connected to the sun. From a faith perspective, when we actively use the sun, which is the first energy source God gave us, we transfer less economic burden and risk not only to the Earth but also to future generations. Energy produced by nuclear power may seem like an energy source that doesn't emit carbon right now, but it causes extensive environmental destruction in the process before and after energy production, and problems such as the risk and management costs of 'spent nuclear waste' still remain unresolved. Among the various radioactive materials included in 'spent nuclear waste', the well-known Uranium (U)-233 and Plutonium (Pu)-239 do not exist naturally and are artificial nuclides created through nuclear fission in the process of making energy from nuclear fuel. These substances have a very fatal effect when exposed to living organisms. Energy created from the source of light that God made provides energy and an environment where life can exist, but energy made by humans endangers life by emitting a lot of radiation from nuclear materials or excessively emitting carbon.
◦ Churches should become energy producers. Going a step further from saving energy, churches can more actively participate in carbon neutrality when they leap forward as energy-producing entities. Currently, the structure of energy production and consumption in our country contains inequality. Energy production is mainly done in rural areas, while consumption occurs in large cities and the metropolitan area. Large-scale power generation complexes and transmission facilities are needed to connect energy producers and consumers, and these facilities are mainly built in rural areas, causing energy-related injustice.
◦ Churches as energy prosumers. Recently, as village-centered energy production cooperatives increase, movements to fundamentally solve these problems are emerging. Citizens become both producers and consumers of energy. This is called an energy prosumer (producer + consumer), which is expected to be gradually activated through the spread of smart grids via our country's information and communication technology and 4th industrial technology. For a church to become a prosumer beyond saving energy, it's important to reduce unnecessary power usage through accurate diagnosis of the church's energy usage and to check insulation to improve the efficiency of heating and cooling systems. And it's important to produce energy in earnest, with the most common method being installing solar power generation facilities to produce electricity. Since the location and building structure of churches are very diverse, methods that can be practiced should be sought through consulting.[30]
◦ Churches leading village energy transition. It also seems desirable in the long term for churches to lead energy prosumer movements targeting villages. If there's vacant land or usable rooftops in the village, small-scale (over 10kW) solar power generation facilities can be installed in consultation with landowners or building owners, and these can be connected to the power exchange. Such changes can be activated not only with church participation but also with institutional and technical support. As the government and local governments are currently seeking institutional improvements and application of information and communication technologies for carbon neutrality, the quick movement of churches will greatly contribute to the carbon neutrality of local communities.
◦ For example, the Gyeonggi Presbytery of the Presbyterian Church of Korea (Tonghap) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on April 26, 2022, with the Gyeonggi Regional Headquarters of the Korea Energy Agency and the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim to achieve 'Carbon Neutrality 2050 of the Presbyterian Church of Korea'. Through this agreement, the three organizations agreed to actively cooperate in ▲promotion and education for carbon neutrality practice, ▲development and practice induction of greenhouse gas reduction activities in daily life, ▲ reduction of greenhouse gases in the transportation sector such as distribution of eco-friendly vehicles, ▲ reduction of greenhouse gases in the building sector such as distribution of new and renewable energy, and to restore the order of creation through mutual cooperation with churches in Gyeonggi Province.[31]
◦ Energy production is the best way to save energy. It's important for churches to independently check energy usage, calculate carbon emissions, and conduct saving campaigns, but furthermore, when churches play a role as centers leading energy transition in the areas where they are located, churches will be able to fulfill the role of an ark in the era of climate crisis.
3.2 Transportation
◦ Currently, about 1/3, or 32%, of the oil consumed domestically is used in the transportation sector.[32] Most of the transportation methods used in Korea are based on oil, and they generate greenhouse gases (17% of total emissions) as well as air pollutants. In response, the government is setting goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector by using electricity and hydrogen produced from clean energy. Major European cities, including Oslo in Norway, are reorganizing their systems and road infrastructure to make it difficult for vehicles to access and not provide parking spaces, encouraging citizens to use public transportation or bicycles rather than private cars through car-free city initiatives.
◦ If churches also encourage the use of public transportation, observe car-free Sundays, and convert church vehicles to low-emission vehicles, it will reduce carbon emissions from the transportation sector. The Green Church Network[33] in Canada proposes a 'Sunday Walk' movement to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. They suggest that churches create space for bicycle parking to foster a culture of cycling to church. They also propose 'Carpooling for Christ' to allow church members living nearby to come to worship together by car through a Sunday carpooling system. They also regularly implement car-free Sundays and partially restrict the use of parking lots. However, as social distancing becomes normalized due to infectious diseases like COVID-19, car sharing is likely to become increasingly difficult in the future. Also, bicycle usage will only increase significantly if the safety of bike lanes is sufficiently guaranteed. Moreover, the increase in extreme heat/cold days and extreme weather events makes people prefer private vehicles over public transportation. Additionally, in the current situation dependent on fossil and nuclear energy, an increase in electric vehicles does not reduce carbon emissions, so we need to consider energy transition and transportation issues together fundamentally.
3.3 Food
◦ A faith-based approach to food is necessary. Food is probably the most frequently mentioned topic in churches regarding environmental issues. But the approaches to the topic are just as diverse. Centered on creation faith, food is addressed from various perspectives such as GMOs, organic farming, animal welfare, and rural revitalization. So how can churches talk about food in terms of carbon neutrality? Food should be considered not only in terms of the meals served at the table but also the process of food production and distribution until it reaches our table, and the issue of food waste disposal.
◦ The foods that have the most impact on climate change are meat and dairy products. Especially as the consumption of meat and dairy products increases, many resources are invested in raising livestock. To raise a large number of livestock, a corresponding amount of feed must be produced, which is why multinational companies produce large quantities of crops such as palm oil, soybeans, and corn to raise livestock and produce meat on a large scale. Since factory farming goes hand in hand with factory agriculture, we cannot talk about food without mentioning factory farming and agriculture. The land used for factory farming and agriculture accounts for 26% of the total global area, which shows a very unreasonable reality of human society considering that about 820 million people suffer from hunger. Moreover, livestock farming accounts for 19% of global greenhouse gas emissions, half of which is methane. Also, many forests, grasslands, and wetlands are used as land for feed production, causing ecological destruction such as loss of biodiversity and carbon sinks.[34] Additionally, the pesticides used in crop cultivation for livestock feed exceed 11.7 tons annually in the United States alone, constantly threatening the survival of animals and plants,[35] and increasing the risk of chemical circulation such as soil and groundwater pollution. In short, the increase in meat consumption destroys carbon sinks and the sustainability of ecosystems while increasing the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon and methane, becoming the main culprit of the climate crisis.
◦ Churches should lead the life-giving meal movement. Although there were movements in churches regarding life-giving meals before, it was around 2002 that the Korean church began to take a serious faith-based interest in the life-giving meal movement and food issues. For example, the Women's Missionary Society of Saemoonan Church developed a life-giving meal movement and established and practiced the following rules: ▲Enjoy simple, modest, and inconvenient cooking ▲Reduce processed foods and eat seasonal foods ▲Enjoy vegetables more than meat ▲Reduce disposable items ▲Participate in the empty plate movement ▲Cook rice with organic rice ▲Use fermented EM (Effective Microorganism) culture solution as dishwasher detergent. These movements were mainly led by women in the church and were conducted along with women's education.
◦ Ssangsaem Nature Church (Pastor Baek Young-ki) practices the life-giving meal empty plate movement with its members, operates weekend farms, and directly grows organic vegetables. Also, through the consumer cooperative 'Local Food Good Life', it provides healthy food to the church and its members while conducting education about food, enriching the faith-based understanding of life. These movements have become more active as they witnessed many livestock being culled due to foot-and-mouth disease and avian influenza, and the disregard for the lives of livestock by the factory farming system.
◦ Utilizing urban gardens is another thing that churches can practice. It's good for churches to secure land in nearby areas and try weekend farming. However, considering accessibility, sustainability, member participation, and carbon emissions during travel, churches can start with rooftop gardens, nearby vacant lots, or box gardens as appropriate to their situation. Also, by actively promoting and educating about urban agriculture, churches can encourage members to cultivate urban gardens on the rooftops or balconies of their private homes or workplaces. Through urban agriculture, people not only produce food directly but also increase their ecological sensitivity and interest in the environment, and discover the value of farming. Sunbokeum Myeongnyun Church (Pastor Choi Seong-gu) is participating in the carbon neutrality policy by turning its rooftop into a garden. Through the rooftop garden, the church communicates with the local community, with Busan Dongnae-gu Office supporting 80% of the cost and the church bearing only 20%. It's noteworthy that the energy used in the rooftop garden is produced by solar power, and they have adopted a planting and watering system to prevent unnecessary waste of water.
3.4 Waste
◦ A comprehensive approach to reducing waste is necessary. Looking at the Ministry of Environment's "National Waste Generation and Treatment Status," South Korea's per capita household waste generation has fluctuated between an annual average of 350-440kg since 1995. However, examining the average daily waste generation by type in our country, as of 2020, the waste generated in Korea amounts to an average of 534,055 tons per day, of which 236,183 tons (44.2%) is construction waste, followed by 220,951 tons (41.3%) of business site discharge facility waste. Household waste accounts for 61,597 tons, which is 11.5% of the total waste. This means that reducing waste at home alone cannot prevent the anticipated waste crisis, and it shows that reducing waste generation from construction and business sites is more urgent than just from households. Therefore, when considering carbon neutrality and the role of the church, we need to think about more active and comprehensive waste reduction.
◦ Currently, the most active case centered around churches is the zero-waste shop. The zero-waste movement aims to reduce the amount of waste generated to near zero by reducing the consumption of plastic used for packaging containers. Geomdan Good Church (Pastor Yoo Seung-beom) has created 'Natural Space Soom' using part of the church space to operate a zero-waste shop and refill station, and has also created a resource circulation corner where residents can bring PET bottle caps, ice packs, milk cartons, air caps, and used batteries, which are then provided to community centers or post offices for reuse.
◦ Various manuals can be helpful. Zero-waste shops or refill stations may not be practical for churches to implement depending on the situation, as they require separate space and personnel allocation. Therefore, most domestic and foreign churches mainly monitor the amount of waste generated in the church and operate their own programs to reduce waste generation. In such cases, it's good to get help from manuals like '20 Challenges for a Zero Waste Church'.
- Form a zero-waste team. Doing it alone is not only difficult but also unsustainable. Since a considerable amount of waste is food waste, it's good if those in charge of the church kitchen participate or lead the group.
- Declare! Announce the zero-waste campaign along with the department in charge of the environment in the church.
- Check the waste separation guidelines within the church and inform all church members.
- Monitor the trash cans. Ask what is thrown away each week, what can be recycled, what can be composted, and if there are any disposable items that can be reused.
- Start recycling and consider ways to reduce recyclable items.
- Create and use facilities that can compost. Composting will reduce waste by at least one-half to one-third.
- If there's a place to wash (if not, even by creating one), replace disposable cups (coffee cups) and plates. If it's really difficult, replace them with biodegradable items.
- Avoid using sugar and creamer in disposable packets.
- Use reusable spoons and teaspoons instead of plastic ones.
- Strongly discourage plastic water bottles and use reusable cups or recycled cups.
- For (Sunday school) snacks, use large containers that can be reused or recycled rather than individually packaged juices.
- When purchasing Sunday school supplies, check what can be reused, what is donated, and when buying new items, use colored pencils instead of markers, and items made of biodegradable materials. Consider using pipe cleaners.
- Eliminate paper towels in the kitchen and use cloth instead.
- Compost paper towels in the bathroom.
- Encourage local churches or church members not to opt for paper newsletters (bills).
- Don't print paper for every worship service; use prayer materials or the Bible directly.
- Use reusable cups instead of disposable plastic cups.
- Make groups using the church space aware of the 'Zero Waste Church'.
- When storing food, use reusable containers instead of plastic bags.
- Have patience and pray often for this work. Changing hearts and habits requires time and the help of the Holy Spirit!
◦ Upcycling is more important than recycling. To reduce waste, reuse is more effective than separate disposal or recycling. Waste separated for recycling is not recycled in its original form. Most of the recyclable waste we separate becomes raw materials of lower quality than their original properties, so it can be called downcycling. On the other hand, upcycling is redesigning waste to create objects with high artistic and environmental value. That's why upcycling is also called creative reuse. While recycling and separate disposal are meaningful, if churches and believers come together to create creative ideas for upcycling and engage in various activities through this, they can not only breathe new life into 'dying objects' but also carry out meaningful activities that save the earth.
◦ Plans and goals should be set through democratic communication. Domestic and foreign churches and Christian organizations introduce various materials that inform about practical ways for churches. The above material is one of them. However, because the environment, situation, and characteristics of church members are diverse, it is better for believers to gather together to discuss and decide what the church can do. It's also important to examine the communication structure within the church to ensure that no one is excluded from the discussion process. When plans and goals are set through this process, the voluntariness and participation of believers can be more sustainable.
3.5 Buildings/Architecture
◦ We must pay attention to eco-friendly architecture. The United States, United Kingdom, France, Japan, and others are implementing green building certification systems. Among various certification systems such as BREEAM in the UK, HQE in France, and CASBEE in Japan, LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is the most widely known. South Korea implements its own Green Standard for Energy and Environmental Design (G-SEED) tailored to the country's building environment. While green building certification standards vary slightly by country, they generally consider sustainable relationships with the ecological environment, efficient use of water and energy, materials and resources, and indoor environment.
◦ Keystone Community Church in the United States is the world's first church to receive LEED certification. Based on respect for the created world and stewardship faith, Keystone Community Church decided to pursue LEED certification from the early stages of church design. The church was designed to naturally ventilate, allowing clean air to circulate naturally inside the building, and maximized natural lighting by using large windows. They also strived to use recycled and sustainable materials as much as possible during construction and pursued environmentally safe and ecologically considerate interiors. Furthermore, they installed bicycle racks, electric vehicle charging stations, and set up filtration systems to prevent waste from the church from entering nearby reservoirs or forests, considering the relationship with the surrounding ecosystem. This church design and construction led church members to think and decide ecologically in all church activities, establishing environmental conditions and impacts as matters to be always considered, not just as secondary aspects of church activities.[36]
◦ Environmentally friendly church buildings will gain attention. Unfortunately, very few churches in our country have received green building certification (Pyeongdong Church). However, churches planning remodeling or new construction in the future need to consider buildings, interiors, and space usage that protect natural resources, avoid harmful materials, and consider energy efficiency. When churches become models of green buildings in the community and spaces friendly to both nature and the local community, they will simultaneously become places of physical, emotional, educational, and ethical interest.
3.6 Carbon Sinks
◦ Why is carbon absorption important? In carbon neutrality, the role of carbon sinks is to absorb and store carbon emitted by human activities, partially offsetting greenhouse gas emissions, with forests accounting for the largest proportion among carbon sinks. That's why governments are focusing on forest management and restoration to enhance the carbon absorption capacity of forests. However, forests are threatened by desertification, increased forest fires, spread of forest pests, and landslides due to climate change. Additionally, wood stores carbon absorbed by trees throughout their lifetime, so it should be used for high value-added and long-lasting purposes.
◦ Recently, the carbon storage capacity of oceans has gained attention. The carbon absorption activities of marine ecosystems are referred to as Blue Carbon. The carbon absorption and storage capacity of oceans operates through complex marine ecosystem food chains, making the preservation and restoration of marine ecosystems important. South Korea is implementing projects related to Blue Carbon through the First Basic Plan for the Management and Restoration of Tidal Flats, etc. (2021-2025).[37]
◦ Churches can actively participate in offsetting emissions through carbon absorption in addition to reducing carbon emissions.
◦ The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland (ELCF) has been operating its own environmental education program since 2001, and their announced 'Carbon Neutral Church by 2030' includes items on carbon absorption. They first assess the carbon storage status of land owned by parishes (especially forests and wetlands) and are researching and promoting ways to further develop the carbon storage and absorption capacity of forests through ecologically, socially, culturally, and economically sustainable methods.
◦ The Church of England is also systematically promoting carbon absorption in churches. The Energy Footprint Tool (EFT) published in 2019 submitted energy usage data for about 5,000 churches, of which 5% have already achieved net-zero carbon, and reports that a 12.5% carbon reduction has already been achieved nationwide. Based on the submitted data, EFT announces that the net carbon emissions from energy use by the Church of England is 185,000tCO₂e, clearly stating how much the Church of England needs to reduce by 2030. As practical measures, they are actively pursuing LED replacement projects, solar panel installations, and creating net-zero carbon schools/churches. The Church of England announced in June 2021 that Hereford Cathedral became the 1000th eco-church.[38]
◦ The God of creation is one who makes and cares for gardens. In the creation story, God created various plants and animals. They are organically connected from invisible microscopic levels to macroscopic cosmic scales. No matter how advanced human science and technology become, we cannot understand this complex system. Humans do not yet fully know what happens in the deep seas of the Earth we live on, let alone the distant universe. But God is the one who created all of this, constantly cares for it, and breathes life into it. And we are called as co-creators in this work. Stewards are required to participate in God's creation beyond simply caring for it. So when can we have the image that most resembles God? It's when we participate in God's creation. We cannot create something from nothing, but we can take good care of the world God has created and enhance the abundance and diversity of life. Just as God created the Garden of Eden and this world, each church can create its own large and small gardens and groves to empathize with the heart of God, the Creator and Gardener.
◦ It is the proper duty of churches to offset the carbon they emit, taking responsibility for the Earth and vulnerable groups facing the climate crisis. Recently, churches have begun to make 'carbon offerings'. These offerings are used for activities such as planting trees in Mongolia, where desertification is progressing. However, for churches to absorb and offset as much carbon as they emit through forest cultivation and preservation activities, they first need to know their carbon emissions. Rather than vaguely holding tree-planting events, it's better to first calculate carbon emissions at the church and presbytery (conference) level and make specific plans accordingly. For the feasibility and sustainability of the project, churches in Finland and England consulted energy experts and measured church carbon emissions nationwide before taking specific actions. This shows that carbon absorption is not something that one or two churches can do partially, but rather something that needs to be done systematically at the denominational level.
3.7 Environmental Education
◦ Environmental education is lifelong education. It should not be limited to Sunday school education for children, youth, and young adults. While environmental education tends to have a much greater educational effect the younger the age, it should fundamentally be treated as a universal educational topic for church members of all age groups.
◦ Environmental education focuses on practice and activities. This means it's not education where you listen to lectures and take notes in a notebook. The climate crisis is a topic that calls for social practice, and further global practice, as much as individual practice.
◦ Environmental education is education that awakens hope. Some learners participating in environmental education may exhibit symptoms such as climate depression. To prevent this, environmental education should be conducted that encourages one another, reminding that even small and trivial practices are never meaningless, to avoid falling into depression. Environmental education should stimulate learners' voluntariness and autonomy, while also being education that awakens hope.
◦ Environmental education is an activity that educates about responsibility, love, and determination for this world. Environmental education in churches aiming for carbon neutrality and climate churches needs to pay appropriate attention to the political dynamics of the human community beyond the level of personal character education for Christians. In this sense, we introduce a female political thinker's definition of education. Education is "the point where we decide whether we love the world enough to assume responsibility for it," and also "the point where we decide how we are going to save the world from inevitable ruin, which cannot be averted without the arrival of the new and young."[39]
◦ Environmental education starts with the individual but does not remain limited to the individual. The Earth is already conditioned by 'globalization'. We have clearly confirmed this from the fact that the COVID-19 pandemic that broke out at one point on Earth did not remain limited to that place. Therefore, even when encountering local natural disasters, we should guide people to always keep the entire planet Earth in mind and contemplate its causes and effects.
◦ Environmental education is education that keeps international cooperation in mind. The climate crisis is not mitigated just because one country on Earth achieves carbon neutrality alone. This is because the Earth's atmosphere is a common environment that the entire planet shares and influences together. This is why countries around the world frequently gather for international conferences related to the climate crisis to check and confirm the progress of carbon neutrality in each country. Therefore, environmental education programs should efficiently arrange educational topics so as not to let go of the tension regarding international cooperation and collaboration (of course, cooperation and collaboration within one's own country as well!).
◦ Environmental education takes the form of democratic dialogue meetings. We must carefully guard against the idea that if one dictator appears and forcefully gives orders in an orderly manner to protect the environment, wouldn't it be more effective? We must not allow the infiltration of ecofascism. Those participating in environmental education should not forget that, although it may be slow, they must overcome the climate crisis through democratic parliamentary politics and international cooperation.
◦ Environmental education can be developed at the church and village level. For example, a church in Eunpyeong-gu, Seoul, is practicing carbon fasting in solidarity with the local government. Also, there is a growing trend of churches across denominations in the same area declaring themselves as 'green churches' and seeking solidarity at the church level. While the comprehensive and inclusive movements of the entire presbytery or general assembly of the denomination are of course important, this means that it's not necessary to have the presbytery or general assembly's decision as a prerequisite to implement environmental education programs. A good example of this is the Dream Village Elim Church, which was mentioned earlier.[40] If you need more cases and information related to the united activities of churches in the local community and educational programs for this union, as well as information about the 'Carbon Neutral Climate Church Workshop' as an educational program specialized for the climate crisis, you can contact the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim.
◦ Environmental education is education that communicates centered on messages. It's good to have an autonomous, democratic atmosphere where environmental terms such as carbon footprint, carbon neutrality, carbon zero, sustainable Earth, biodiversity, resource circulation, composting, waste reusing and upcycling, zero-waste (life without waste), meat-eating and vegetarianism, energy transition, etc., can be mentioned without hesitation in the church. It's good to remember that even if it's not a concept defined as Christian doctrine, if it aligns with Christian doctrine in terms of 'message', environmental education-related concepts can be smoothly communicated in the church.
◦ Environmental education can utilize existing church organizations. The church already has a basic structure that can hold regular meetings once a week (although face-to-face meetings are difficult due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Small unit organizations such as districts, classes, or cells are also tightly and densely organized. If environmental education is conducted using such unit organizations, the educational effect can be continuous.
3.8 Worship and Sermon
◦ Today, the climate crisis is both a social crisis and a church crisis, so the church must actively respond at the church level. This is because the church, like society, exists within and thanks to the global environment. We need to especially remember that our predecessors in faith, for example, the prophets of the Old Testament, boldly proclaimed God's word to their times and society. Their proclamation topics were, in modern terms, socially engaged. They were involved not only in national policies but also in foreign policies of a country. Not only major prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah, who did not hesitate to speak directly to the royal court, but also minor prophets like Hosea, Amos, and Zechariah, who are known to have worked relatively among the public, all had a great interest in the crisis situations of their contemporary society. Today's churches (not only pastors but also general believers) should do the same. In particular, they should have critical and participatory interest in the climate crisis, which is one of the current social issues.
◦ Sermons and Bible studies within the church can be connected to the topic of the climate crisis. Of course, it's not easy to immediately find a text in the Bible that directly deals with topics like the climate crisis or carbon neutrality. This is because modern terms like climate crisis or carbon neutrality had not yet appeared in biblical times. However, we can see that although these specific terms were not literally used, the message of the Bible was never indifferent to negative changes in the global environment like the climate crisis, or to responsive actions to unjust social realities. Moreover, there are countless records in the Bible of prophets' statements and activities who bravely stood up despite personal risks.
◦ Korean Protestants' awareness of the climate crisis environment generally shows a high level of social participation. According to the results of a climate environment-related awareness survey (with a sample error confidence level of ±3.1%) conducted by the United Christian Churches of Korea (UCCK) through G&Company Research from April to May 2022, 47.1% of pastors viewed the climate environment movement as 'a type of mission necessary for the realization of God's kingdom', and 50.1% of pastors agreed that it was an essential part of pastoral activities.[41] What stands out most is that in this survey, the percentage of church members who said they would participate if a climate crisis-related campaign was held at the church or presbytery (conference) level was as high as 93.5%.[42]
◦ In the era of the COVID-19 pandemic, pastors should consider not only online sermon methodologies but also the sermon content itself. In recent years, many pastors have been exploring online sermon methodologies suitable for the COVID-19 pandemic situation.[43] However, since the climate crisis is a much more fatal and irreversible threat than the COVID-19 pandemic, they should consider sermon content focusing on the climate crisis with a sense of urgency and vigilance.
◦ 'Creation faith' as sermon content fits well with the topic of the climate crisis. Before creating humans, God prepared the conditions for human survival (light, water, land, various living things, etc.) on this earth. In the process of examining the characteristics and attributes of the planet Earth one by one, we can meditate on how optimized these are for the lives of humans and other living beings.
◦ 'Love for neighbors' as sermon content becomes much broader and deeper when interpreted in connection with the climate crisis. The love for neighbors commanded by God does not mean the act of gathering together and enjoying similarities and a sense of unity while loving happily. Christians are also commanded to love their enemies (Matthew 5:44). Not only should we not limit neighborly love to those like us, but we should also feel and love even those who are hostile to us as neighbors. Furthermore, Christians should have a heart to feel and love other animal and plant species, not just the human species, as neighbors. If pastors write their sermon manuscripts to continuously expand the category of neighbors in this way whenever they preach on the topic of 'love for neighbors', even without explicitly mentioning words like climate crisis, carbon neutrality, biodiversity, and environmental movement, sensitivity towards neighboring people and neighboring nature can be activated in the hearts of church members.
◦ There are various materials that pastors who are considering climate crisis-related sermons and Bible study operations can refer to. First, they can refer to the book "Challenges of the Climate Crisis Era and the Church's Response," which prays and encourages "to be able to practice what each can do first in the areas of life and faith while embracing the new vision of carbon neutrality, green church, and life ministry."[44] Also, with the intention that "biblical theology should be able to contain modern theological meaning so that it does not degenerate into a branch of ancient Near Eastern studies or archaeology,"[45] they can refer to books like "The Bible Answers the Ecological Crisis," co-authored by several biblical theologians. Lastly, the series of articles written by Dr. Song Jun-in (Senior Pastor of Cheongrang Church) under the title "Ecological Crisis and Christian Responsibility" in the Christian Newspaper is also beneficial for reference.[46]
◦ Special worship programs or prayer meetings can be planned to meditate on the historical sins of humans that have brought about the climate crisis and to boost ecological spirituality. Outdoor worship can be utilized, and Creation Season worship can be creatively organized. To obtain various information related to special worship programs, you can contact the environmental committees of each denomination, or inquire with the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim or the Christian Environmental Movement Solidarity.
◦ Ecological spirituality walking prayer programs can be utilized. As a spiritual program where one can meditate on the relationship between 'the earth and me' and how much humans have damaged the natural environment in the process of developing civilization, it can be conducted while moving the body and walking together with others. It can be combined with walking and trash-picking ('plogging') activity programs. Churches that need related materials and guides can contact the Korea Shalem Spiritual Training Institute or the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim to receive guides necessary for plogging programs and walking prayer programs.
4. Conclusion
In this study, we examined the perceptions and attitudes that Korean churches and theology have taken towards environmental issues, and proposed directions and examples for the Korean church to move forward in line with the current situation of climate crisis and carbon neutrality, which demand changes in life and values. In summary, while Korean churches and theology are still at a stage where interest in environmental issues including the climate crisis remains minimal, we were pleased to discover that changes are occurring from the bottom up. Despite the differences in theological positions and the diversity of church situations making it difficult for churches to pursue common goals according to an agreed manual, it is clearly a positive phenomenon that changes aimed at solving the climate crisis through Christian values are occurring on both small and large scales inside and outside the church.
Furthermore, this study introduced domestic and international materials and examples (overseas examples omitted due to space limitations) for churches to refer to in practicing carbon neutrality, enabling churches to find and concretize their own carbon neutrality practice methods. However, experimental attempts and research are also needed to help the materials and examples introduced and proposed by this study to be appropriately applied in the field of Korean churches and to develop further according to the situation. In this sense, this study can be said to present a big picture of why churches should be interested in and participate in carbon neutrality and the direction they should take.
We would like to propose the following as what the Korean church should consider and ponder for the activation of carbon neutrality in the future:
First, the Korean church still lacks experience related to issues such as the environment or climate crisis. No matter how good the materials and policies are created, they will be useless if they are not applied in the church field. Therefore, field-centered empirical research is needed to look more closely at the church field through various cases of carbon neutrality practice by churches and their evaluation. Experimental research is also needed to examine how new strategies for church carbon neutrality are applied in the church field. Although many Christians and churches have played important roles in environmental movement sites across our country, including climate change, it can be said that the process and achievements have been relatively rarely recorded and shared. However, if these experiences and cases of churches are shared and exchanged with each other, the carbon neutrality effect of the Korean church will be much greater than before. For example, the 'Environmental Missionary Training Course' conducted by region and area by the Christian Environmental Education Center Salim, or the 'Salim School' conducted directly by ecological environmental education activists, not only provide opportunities for churches to improve environmental literacy and empathize with the climate crisis together with local communities, but also add momentum for local churches and Christians to share their experiences and methods and explore the way forward, so please refer to them.
Secondly, considering that the practice of carbon neutrality in churches can achieve effective results when the participation and voluntariness of members are premised, the communication structure within the church needs to be improved for the church to move towards carbon neutrality. The Christian environmental movement in the era of climate crisis needs to no longer depend on or focus on specific individuals, specific organizations, or specific issues. This is because climate change has become a global phenomenon that threatens all areas of life, and no one can be excluded from this danger. This means that all members within the church can reflect on and practice climate crisis issues in their place of life from a faith perspective. Therefore, the church should actively gather the diverse voices of its members and identify their needs so that they can reflect on and apply climate crisis issues from a faith perspective. This is because the continuous participation and interest based on the empathy of the members is the most important foundation for carbon neutrality in the Korean church. Plans that reflect the interests of each department and all age groups in the church have high acceptability and potential for continuous practice. Therefore, it should be possible to establish projects that gather and actively reflect the thoughts and opinions of children, adolescents, and young adults on the climate crisis and the role of the church.
Thirdly, the church should listen more carefully to the voices of children, adolescents, and young adults. There is an increasing number of children, adolescents, and young adults expressing anxiety and fear due to the climate crisis. This is because the current political sphere and social systems do not sufficiently empathize with their crisis. However, the church can lead them to discover hope beyond anxiety and fear through creation faith and the gospel. Therefore, the church should consider ways to listen to their voices, comfort their fears and frustrations, and build them up as missionaries dedicated to the restoration of the created world and the construction of God's kingdom.
The church's steps towards carbon neutrality do not stop at the level of church campaigns that only consider environmental factors. The church's carbon neutrality includes the possibility of church reform in terms of democratic communication within the church and cooperation between the church and local communities, and extends to raising democratic civic awareness in churches and local communities. As carbon neutrality is no longer a problem limited to the natural environment but a global issue, when the Korean church actively participates in carbon neutrality, the Korean church will play a meaningful role in spreading Christian values and spirit as a citizen of the local community and the world.
< Footnote Explanations >
[1] Lynn White, "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis." Science 155(1967), 1203–1207.
[2] Sung Young-gon, "A Reconsideration of the Historical Roots of the Ecological Crisis," Journal of Western Medieval History No. 19 (2007), 3–4.
[3] Suh Nam-dong, "Introduction to Ecological Theology," Christian Thought (Oct. 1970), 88–89.
[4] Suh Nam-dong, "Towards Ecological Ethics," Christian Thought (May 1972), 142.
[5] Ok Pil-hoon, "Christian Environmental Movement for Ecosystem Recovery and Developmental Tasks in Mission Theology," Journal of Religion and Culture Vol. 12 (2015), 20.
[6] Lee Chang-ho, "A Study on Types of Ecological Theology: Focusing on Understanding of God, Relationship between God and the World, and Relationships among Beings in the World," Christian Social Ethics Vol. 52 (2022), 349.
[7] Lee Seung-goo, "A Reformed Theological Response to Ecological Theology," Theological Forum Vol. 40, No. 1 (2022), 137–138.
[8] Yoo Seok-sung, "Ecological Crisis and Environmental Ethics," Theology and Mission Vol. 19 (1995), 239–240.
[9] Ok Pil-hoon, 20–21.
[10] Lee Jung-bae, "Confucian View of Nature and Ecological Theology = Confucianism and Christianity, New Horizon of Encounter," Theology and the World No. 36 (1998).
[11] Jang Yun-jae, "God of the Rainbow, Christ of the Butcher Shop, and the Exploration of Animal Theology," Theological Thought Vol. 171 (2015).
[12] Kim Eun-soo, "Ecological Crisis and Missionary Tasks," Korean Journal of Christian Studies Vol. 30 (2003), 530.
[13] Lee Myung-seok, "A Study on the Development of Ecological Theology and Its Missionary Application," Gospel and Mission Vol. 50 (2020), 249.
[14] Yoo Mi-ho, "History and Current Status of Korean Protestant Environmental Movement," A Study on Promoting Environmental Activities of Religious Social Organizations. Ministry of Environment Commissioned Report (2001).
[15] Lee Myung-seok, 257.
[16] Kim Shin-young, "Characteristics of Korean Christian Environmental Activists through Oral Life History: Focusing on Protestant Pastors," Seoul National University Thesis (2019), 27–28.
[17] Cho Sung-ae, "A Study on the Perception of Environmental Issues in Korean Society and Christianity: Focusing on Media Coverage of the Hebei Spirit Oil Spill," Soongsil University Master's Thesis (2008), 12–15; 67–70.
[18] Christian Today article dated March 12, 2012.
[19] Korean Christian Press, article dated April 13, 2002; Kookmin Ilbo, article dated July 3, 2008; Dangdang News, article dated June 28, 2011; Beautiful Companion, article dated June 5, 2016.
[20] Lim Hee-mo, "Mongolian 'Forest of Grace' Eco-Mission: Implications for North Korean Forestation Eco-Mission," Mission and Theology Vol. 27, 69–70.
[21] Korean Christian Press, article dated April 11, 2022
[22] No Cut News, article dated March 9, 2021
[23] No Cut News, article dated February 15, 2022
[24] Biehl Janet and Peter Staudenmaier. Ecofascism: Lessons from the German Experience (Edinburgh: AK Press, 1995), translated by Kim Sang-young, "Ecofascism: Lessons from the German Experience" (Seoul: Chaekeuromanna-neun-sesang, 2003), 22.
[25] Anthony Giddens, The Politics of Climate Change (Cambridge: Polity, 2009), translated by Hong Wook-hee, "The Politics of Climate Change" (Seoul: Eco Libre, 2009), 16.
[26] Jared M. Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: Viking, 2005), translated by Kang Joo-heon, "Collapse" (Paju: Kimyoungsa, 2005), 32
[27] Yoo Mi-ho, "The Call of Creation and 'Carbon Zero Green Church'" August 21, 2021. Christian Ethics Movement of Korea contribution. https://cemk.org/22407/ Accessed on July 25, 2022.
[28] Yoo Mi-ho, Lee In-mi, "80 Ways of Environmental Living" (Seoul: Faith and Intellect, 2022), 191.
[29] Greenhouse gas emissions from the power sector account for about 36% of total emissions. Republic of Korea 2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy (2017), 51.
[30] Examples of churches using solar power to produce part or all of their electricity can be found at https://www.resonant.energy/houses-of-worship-stories.
[31] Korean Christian Press, article dated May 11, 2022.
[32] Republic of Korea 2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy, 68.
[34] Green Peace (2022), "4 Myths about industrial agriculture," https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/49981/myth-industrial-agriculture-food-climate-health/ Accessed on July 26, 2022.
[35] World Animal Protection. US (2022), More Than 200 Million Pounds of Pesticides in U.S. Are Applied to Crops Grown to Feed Animals on Factory Farms. https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/new-report-more-than-200-million-pounds-of-pesticides-in-us-are-applied-to-crops-grown-to-feed-animals-on-factory-farms-2022-02-22/ Accessed on July 27, 2022.
[36] Grand Rapids Business Journal (2006. 3. 27.), "First LEED Church of America," https://grbj.com/uncategorized/first-leed-church-of-america/ Accessed on July 26, 2022.
[37] Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries (2021.10.20.), The 1st Basic Plan for the Management and Restoration of Tidal Flats, etc. (2021~2025), https://www.mof.go.kr/article/view.do?menuKey=375&boardKey=9&articleKey=43491. Accessed on July 27, 2022.
[38] The Church of England (2021.12.02.). "One year on: Church moves forward on carbon reduction target," https://www.churchofengland.org/news-and-media/news-and-statements/one-year-church-moves-forward-carbon-reduction-target Accessed on July 27, 2022.
[39] Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future (New York: The Viking Press, 1961), 196.
[40] Christian Environmental Education Center Salim Blog, Post No. 1222.
[41] Christian Environmental Education Center Salim · Church and Society Research Institute · Eum Social Culture Research Institute · Hyosan Health Environment Foundation Co-hosted (2022), Forum Proceedings, 6th Ecological Theology Forum. 23.
[42] Christian Environmental Education Center Salim · Church and Society Research Institute · Eum Social Culture Research Institute · Hyosan Health Environment Foundation Co-hosted (2022), Forum Proceedings, 6th Ecological Theology Forum. 24.
[43] Son Dong-sik, "A Study on Effective Online Preaching in the COVID-19 Era," University and Mission Vol. 45 (2020).
[44] Ko Jae-baek · Yoo Mi-ho · Cho Young-ho et al., "Challenges of the Climate Crisis Era and the Church's Response" (Seoul: Saemulgyeol Plus, 2022), 21.
[45] Kang Chul-goo · Koo Ja-yong et al., "The Bible Answers the Ecological Crisis" (Seoul: Korean Studies Information Co., Ltd., 2022), Preface.
[46] Song Jun-in, Christian Newspaper Special Contribution (Series), "Ecological Crisis and Christian Responsibility,"
https://www.kidok.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=209767 Accessed on August 6, 2022.
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